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This paper provides an overview of the concept of intelligence and the field of psychometrics from both a historical and quantitative perspective. Drawing on lecture material and expanded with mathematical formulations and R-based analytical scripts, we discuss the origins of intelligence testing, standardization, reliability and validity of psychometric instruments, and controversies surrounding the measurement and interpretation of intelligence. Real-world examples and illustrative data are used to clarify core concepts.

This article explores the fundamental relationship between genes, brain structure, and behavior in advanced cross-cultural psychology. We examine how modern neuroscience has established that the mind emerges from brain function, challenging traditional Cartesian dualism through evidence from brain imaging, lesion studies, and split-brain research. The discussion covers key anatomical features of the brain, including cortical organization and white matter pathways, and their functional significance. We analyze the historical development of neuroscientific understanding from Ramon y Cajal's pioneering neuronal illustrations to contemporary findings on localized brain functions. The article demonstrates how elementary processing units in the brain work through both serial and parallel mechanisms to generate complex behaviors. Additionally, we explore the genetic foundations of behavior, emphasizing that while genes influence neural architecture, environmental factors through epigenetic mechanisms also play crucial roles. Case studies including split-brain patients and real-time brain mapping during surgery illustrate the immediate relationship between neural activity and behavioral output. Finally, we examine circadian rhythm genes as an example of evolutionary conservation, showing how identical genetic mechanisms control sleep-wake cycles across species from bacteria to humans, highlighting both the biological unity of life and the specific adaptations that distinguish human cognition.