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PS305

Weekly readings

Timekeeping is often treated as a purely technological matter, delegated to clocks, computers, and the legal codes that regulate civil time. Yet the fundamental meanings of “day,” “noon,” and “the current time” are grounded in astronomy: Earth’s rotation, Earth’s orbital motion, and the geometric conventions of celestial coordinates. This article develops a unified set of lecture notes on three closely connected notions of time: sidereal time (star time), universal time (world time), and zone time (regional time). We begin by explaining why sidereal time is the natural clock for describing Earth’s rotation relative to the celestial sphere, and why its operational determination via meridian transits is both conceptually simple and historically central to astrometry. We then turn to solar time and the motivations for adopting mean solar time in civil life, highlighting the equation of time and the geometric and dynamical origins of seasonal variations between apparent and mean solar time. Next, we present the modern family of Universal Time realizations (UT0, UT1, and UT2), emphasizing the physical causes of irregularities in Earth rotation: tidal friction, long-term redistribution of mass, polar motion, and stochastic fluctuations. Finally, we discuss time zones and decree time as pragmatic social infrastructures that reconcile local astronomical time with the demands of transportation, administration, and energy policy. Throughout, we distinguish dynamical time from rotation-based time scales, and we clarify how contemporary atomic timekeeping reshaped the practical role of older astronomical scales. The result is a coherent framework that connects celestial geometry, Earth system physics, and civil conventions into a single account of “what time it is,” and why that question has multiple correct answers depending on context.

This paper presents a comprehensive history of the universe from the Big Bang to the present, with a special focus on the development of cosmology as a natural science. We examine the fundamental properties of the universe - its homogeneity, expansion, and space-time structure - and how these features were shaped by cosmic inflation. The paper discusses in detail the cosmological applications of general relativity, presenting solutions to the Friedmann-Einstein equations for different types of matter. Special attention is paid to the horizon problem and the inflationary model that solves it, which explains the observed symmetry and flat geometry of the universe. We analyze the cosmological role of different forms of matter - radiation, ordinary matter, and scalar fields - and show how these "types of matter" have replaced each other at different times in the history of the universe. The aim of the study is to present the results of today's precise cosmology, with a special emphasis on how cosmology has transformed from a speculative field into an exact natural science over the past two decades.